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In Marxist political economy, the emancipation of productive forces has always been a cornerstone proposition. It is not just the quantitative accumulation of productive forces within the existing technological trajectory and structural model. Instead, it is a revolutionary reshaping. It enables productive forces to break through the shackles of outdated relations of production and superstructure. It also helps productive forces achieve a qualitative leap. Besides, it is a historical process for the full development of productive forces at a more advanced stage. Productive forces are the ultimate determining force of social development. The degree of their emancipation is directly related to the iteration of production modes, the evolution of social formations and the free and all-round development of human beings. This proposition runs through the entire course of human social development. The composition of productive forces relies on the organic coordination of core elements. These elements include laborers, means of labor and objects of labor. The state, functions and interaction modes of these elements directly determine the development level and emancipation degree of productive forces. In turn, this principle provides a fundamental basis for analyzing the practical logic of new-quality productive forces from the perspective of productive force elements.

Based on an accurate insight into the evolving international situation and domestic development trends, General Secretary Xi Jinping is rooted in China’s specific practices. He is rooted in China’s specific practices and has continuously promoted the adaptation of the Marxist theory of productive forces to the Chinese context and the needs of the times. He has also creatively proposed that new-quality productive forces “are brought about by revolutionary technological breakthroughs, innovative allocation of production factors and in-depth transformation and upgrading of industries. With the qualitative leap of laborers, means of labor, objects of labor and their optimized combination as the basic connotation, they take the substantial improvement of total factor productivity as the core symbol (Xi, 2024)”. New-quality productive forces are an advanced type of productive force that achieves a qualitative leap. They are guided by scientific and technological innovation. They also profoundly reshape the inherent attributes and interaction logic of core elements, including laborers, means of labor and objects of labor. New-quality productive forces empower laborers to break through the limitations of physical and mental capabilities. They drive production tools to leap from the “extension of human hands” to the “expansion of human brains”. They also extend the objects of labor from tangible entities to the micro, macro and virtual fields. New-quality productive forces have distinct characteristics of high technology, high efficiency and high quality. They have become the most powerful driving force for the emancipation and development of contemporary productive forces. They are not a simple replacement of traditional productive forces; instead, they are a new stage in the development of productive forces and a profound self-revolution.

From the perspective of productive force elements, the revolutionary significance of new-quality productive forces lies in their systemic nature. They are no longer confined to the partial upgrading of a single element. Instead, they break the rigid pattern of traditional factor combination through systematic reconstruction and coordinated empowerment among elements. This way, they help release the potential of all elements to the full. The creativity of laborers has been stimulated unprecedentedly. The intelligence level of production tools has achieved a qualitative leap. The boundaries of objects of labor have been expanded continuously. The efficiency and accuracy of factor allocation have been greatly improved. This series of changes has driven productive forces to break free from the constraints of the traditional development model. It has realized a fundamental transformation from quantitative accumulation to qualitative leap. It provides a new path for solving development problems and activating development momentum. It demonstrates the vivid vitality and practical creativity of the Marxist theory of productive forces in the new era. It also offers an important contemporary sample for the in-depth exploration of the inherent laws of the emancipation and development of productive forces.

1 Emancipating the Laborer Element to Unleash New Momentum for Subjective Creation

Laborers are the most dynamic and revolutionary factor among production factors. The emancipation of productive forces, in the final analysis, is the emancipation of human beings, as well as the emancipation of their knowledge, skills and creativity. Yet in previous stages of productive forces development, especially under the conditions of large-scale capitalist machine industry, laborers, the “living element”, were often dominated and suppressed by the means of production, the “material element”. Their creativity failed to be fully developed and unleashed, gradually reducing them to appendages of material things and depriving them of their independence and subjectivity. New-quality productive forces are fundamentally reversing this situation. They reshape the conditions, content and organizational forms of labor. They also gradually emancipate laborers from arduous, repetitive and mechanized labor. New-quality productive forces endow laborers with unprecedented initiative and creativity. In this way, they realize an unprecedented release of the subjective creativity of the subject of productive forces. This process is not spontaneous. It is an inevitable convergence of the inherent characteristics of new-quality productive forces and the developmental needs of human beings in historical dialectics.

New-quality productive forces uphold the subjective status of human beings. They transform laborers from “appendages of machines” into “leaders of production”. In the era of traditional large-scale machine industry, laborers were often embedded in fixed production rhythms and division of labor systems. They became “living accessories” for machine operation. Marx depicted this alienated state precisely: “The worker becomes a mere appendage of the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack that is required of him.” (Marx, & Engels, 2009a: 38) This labor model severely suppressed laborers’ initiative, judgment and comprehensive abilities, obscuring the essential power of human beings. The development of new-quality productive forces has reversed this trend. With the further advancement of science and technology, especially the intelligent manufacturing systems centered on artificial intelligence, industrial internet and digital twin technology, a leap from “automation” to “intellectualization” has been achieved. Repetitive physical labor and simple mental labor have been replaced by intelligent equipment and algorithms, and the role of laborers has shifted from direct operators to supervisors, coordinators and optimizers of the production process. As Marx foresaw: “Labor no longer appears so much to be included within the production process; rather, the human being comes to relate more as a watcher and regulator to the production process itself (Marx, & Engels, 2009d: 196).” Laborers are no longer passive links in the production process. They exercise the functions of management, regulation and innovation over the production process from a dominant position.

New-quality productive forces affirm the essential power of human beings, driving the shift of labor from “repetitive labor” to “creative practice”. Labor is the “species-being” of human beings and the fundamental activity that confirms human identity. Marx pointed out that “the whole character of a species, its species-character, is contained in the character of its life activity; and free, conscious activity is the species-character of human beings”(Marx, & Engels, 2008: 162), with labor as the core here. When labor is reduced to a means of subsistence, an external and forced activity for human beings, it becomes alienated labor that negates the essential power of human beings. By changing the content and form of labor, new-quality productive forces have activated the essential power of human beings, paving the way for labor to return to the “primary need” of human beings (Jia, & Hu, 2025). The development of new-quality productive forces has spawned numerous new occupations such as data analysts, algorithm engineers and system architects. The core value of such labor lies in solving uncertain problems and independently exploring new technological paths. This process is full of exploration and creativity, forming a sharp contrast with the extremely simple and monotonous assembly line operations of the traditional era (Marx, & Engels, 2009a: 38). Such creative labor against the backdrop of new-quality productive forces is a higher-level manifestation of the species-character of human beings. The fruits of such labor materialize human initiative and creativity, and the process itself is the most direct affirmation of the essential power of human beings.

New-quality productive forces provide guarantees for human development, promoting the transformation from “labor time” to “free time”. Marx clearly stated that “economizing on labor time is equivalent to increasing free time, i.e., time for the full development of the individual, and the full development of the individual is thus once more the greatest productive force acting back on labor productivity” (Marx, & Engels, 2009d: 203). High technology and high efficiency are the core of new-quality productive forces, and the social wealth created per unit of time far exceeds that of traditional productive forces. This means a significant reduction in the socially necessary labor time required to meet the basic material needs of social members, enabling laborers to break free from the long shackles of labor for subsistence. The liberated time, namely “free time”, is crucial for the emancipation of laborers. Marx defined it as “time for the development of human capacities and social potentialities (art, etc., science) which have no direct practical purpose” (Marx, & Engels, 2008: 127). When laborers do not have to devote all their energy to subsistence labor, they can invest their free time in activities such as learning new knowledge, researching new technologies, engaging in artistic creation, conducting scientific exploration or participating in social welfare. Though these activities have no “direct practical purpose”, they are precisely the fields where human creativity is most vibrant and surging. By expanding the free time for individual development, new-quality productive forces transform the potential subjective creativity of laborers into real developmental momentum. The creative vitality of hundreds of millions of laborers, when converged, will ultimately become a mighty force driving human emancipation, the leap of productive forces and social progress.

2 Innovating the Means of Labor Element to Drive the Qualitative Leap of Productive Forces

Production tools directly reflect human beings’ ability to transform nature. They occupy a central position among the means of labor (Research Center for Xi Jinping Thought on Economic Work, 2023). The epoch-making transformation of production tools is the most direct manifestation of the emancipation of productive forces. Marx incisively pointed out that “what distinguishes various economic epochs is not what is produced, but how it is produced, and with what means of labor. The means of labor are not only the measure of the development of human labor power, but also the indicator of the social relations within which labor is carried out” (Marx, & Engels, 2009c). New-quality productive forces are driven by scientific and technological innovation. They rely on intelligent tools such as artificial intelligence, high-end chips and industrial robots. These tools maximize the role of the means of labor as this “measure” and promote a fundamental iteration of the means of labor. The emancipation of production tools does not mean excluding human beings. Instead, it redefines the relationship between humans and tools. It shifts from the passive state of “humans serving machines” in the past to a new relationship of “machines empowering humans”. The intelligent production systems in new-quality productive forces largely replace laborers’ arduous, repetitive and dangerous mechanical and physical labor. This allows laborers to focus their energy on fields with more creative value. It has enabled a qualitative leap in production tools from the “extension of human hands” to the “expansion of human brains”. This transformation follows the direction Engels anticipated in Dialectics of Nature. By mastering the laws of nature, humanity will ultimately achieve the transition “from the conditions of animal existence to the truly human conditions of existence”. New-quality productive forces leverage breakthroughs in intelligent tools. They laid a solid material foundation for this transition. New production tools consist of big data, algorithms and computing power. They act as human “external brains” and break through the biological limits of human intelligence. They can process complex information efficiently, make accurate predictions and scientific decisions. In this way, they enable an exponential growth in humanity’s ability to understand and transform the world.

The emancipated production tools have an impact beyond individual production links. They permeate all elements and links of the productive forces system. They trigger a qualitative transformation of the entire system. This drives the development of productive forces beyond the simple improvement of traditional efficiency. It moves toward a major change in production logic, factor allocation and value creation. It also promotes the emergence of new economic forms such as the digital economy and the intelligent economy. Under the traditional production model, the input of factors like land, labor and capital strictly follows the law of diminishing marginal returns. In agricultural production, increasing the input of chemical fertilizers and pesticides will lead to slower output growth. In industrial production, expanding the allocation of equipment and labor will also do so. This is due to factor redundancy. This has long been a developmental bottleneck that classical economics could hardly overcome. However, new-quality productive forces are based on knowledge and information. They rely on key factors such as data, information and software that can be used by multiple people at the same time. Unlike traditional tangible factors, these elements can be shared across regions. They can be reused without loss and keep increasing in value through processing and integration. User behavior data can be analyzed and optimized. It can then feed back into product iteration and enhance data value through repeated use. Open-source software can be copied and spread at almost no cost. It quickly empowers a large number of market entities. This fundamentally breaks the constraints of the law of diminishing marginal returns. It shifts productivity growth from a linear model of adding factors together to exponential expansion driven by technological empowerment. This is a fundamental qualitative transformation. Traditional industrial production followed the logic of economies of scale. It relied on expanding the output of a single product to spread fixed costs. It formed a mass and standardized production model. In this model, consumers could only passively accept uniform products. The emergence of intelligent production tools has completely broken this inherent logic. These tools include flexible manufacturing systems, 3D printing and intelligent scheduling platforms. They make it possible to produce diversified products on the same production line at low cost and high efficiency. In the automotive manufacturing industry, flexible production lines can switch between producing vehicles of different models and configurations. 3D printing technology can quickly produce personalized components at a similar cost. It customizes prostheses for patients in the medical field and realizes exclusive designs in the cultural and creative sector. This enables large-scale personalized customization and reshapes the pattern of industrial production.

Marx pointed out long ago that new production tools will inevitably bring about new production models. When such tools can accurately meet consumers’ personalized needs, instead of suppressing human individual demands through standardized production, productive forces will steadily advance toward serving the free and all-round development of human beings. By innovating the means of labor, new-quality productive forces not only greatly improve production efficiency and optimize production processes as a whole, but also create new products and services. They also fundamentally expand the boundaries of human labor potential. They allow human creativity to flourish in broader fields. This represents an unprecedented emancipation of productive forces in terms of capacity.

3 Expanding the Scope of the Objects of Labor to Broaden the Operational Boundaries of Productive Forces

The emancipation of productive forces is reflected not only in the innovative transformation of the mode of “how to produce”, but also profoundly in the structural reconstruction of the objects of “what to produce”. In other words, it is embodied in the deepening and expansion of the scope where the objects of labor function. Under the traditional productive force model, the objects of labor are confined to tangible entities such as land, minerals and raw materials. Production factors are also limited to the classic framework of labor, land and capital. This model is highly dependent on natural resources, and its development boundaries are restricted by both material forms and geographical space. Today, driven by disruptive technology clusters such as digital technology, artificial intelligence and biotechnology, new-quality productive forces are developing rapidly. They have fundamentally broken through the established boundaries of these traditional categories. Marx not only pointed out that “science is also included in productive forces” (Marx, & Engels, 2009d: 188), but also regarded science as “a revolutionary force that plays a driving role in history” (Marx, & Engels, 2009b: 602). This assertion has been directly confirmed in the development of new-quality productive forces. It is precisely by virtue of the revolutionary power of science and technology that human beings have broken free from the multiple constraints of natural resources and historical conditions. We have extended the objects of labor from limited physical substances to the vast micro, macro and even virtual fields. At the micro level, gene sequences, nanomaterials and microbial communities have become new objects for human transformation and utilization. At the macro level, practices in deep space exploration, deep sea development and climate regulation have continuously broken through the traditional territory of human activities. At the virtual level, non-material existences such as data algorithms and digital scenarios have opened up a brand-new field for production practice. This breakthrough is not a simple supplement to the traditional objects of labor, but a reshaping and expansion of the definition of the objects of labor. The fundamental expansion of the scope of the objects of labor is a key dimension of the emancipation of productive forces. It is highly consistent with Engels’ assertion on the infinite development of human cognitive and practical capabilities. Engels pointed out that “with the rapid increase in knowledge of the laws of nature, the means by which humans react on nature have also increased” (Marx, & Engels, 1971: 374).

As a direct product of the explosive growth of human knowledge, new-quality productive forces have greatly enriched the tools and paths for human beings to act on nature through technological innovation. They have realized the in-depth emancipation of productive forces at the level of “scope of action”. In the development of new-quality productive forces, science and technology are no longer merely appendages attached to traditional production factors, but have developed to a high degree as an independent factor. Science and technology have integrated data into the core links of the production process, defining data with scarce characteristics that distinguish it from traditional production factors. Data has the traits of non-rivalry, infinite replicability and repeated usability. Data itself has become a brand-new key production factor, and in the process of its mining, analysis and application, it also serves as an important object of labor—these two attributes are mutually compatible and reflect the dual value of data in the new-quality productive forces system. The mining, analysis and practical application of data have spawned entirely new industrial forms such as the digital economy, platform economy and intelligent industries. What’s more, they have reconstructed the underlying logic of value creation. Value no longer only comes from the production of material products, but more from the processing, integration and empowerment of data factors. This confirms Marx’s foresight: “The development of fixed capital shows to what extent general social knowledge has become a direct productive force, and to what extent the conditions of the social life process itself have come under the control of general intellectual power and been transformed in accordance with it” (Marx, & Engels, 1998: 102). In the era of the knowledge economy, intangible assets centered on science and technology—such as R&D achievements, patented technologies, software programs and intelligent algorithms—have already surpassed traditional tangible assets represented by land and machinery in strategic value. The focus of competition in productive forces has shifted accordingly. It is no longer limited to the possession of tangible means of production, but focuses on the ability to make breakthroughs in scientific and technological innovation. It also centers on the ability to transform scientific knowledge into practical technologies and then into marketable products.

Through the bridge of technology, science has never been so deeply integrated into the productive forces system as it is today, becoming the core engine driving the development of productive forces. More importantly, by building an efficient network of connections and coordination, science and technology have broken the temporal and spatial constraints on the allocation of production factors, releasing the potential of productive forces on a broader scope. The in-depth application of technologies such as the Internet, cloud computing and blockchain has gradually built a global neural system for digital coordination. Factors such as capital, technology, talents and information can flow globally in near real time, matching and integrating freely. To a certain extent, this has realized the ideal vision of “intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations” depicted by Marx and Engels in the Communist Manifesto (Marx, & Engels, 2009a: 35). Science and technology play a key linking role here. With the unique effect of “annihilating space by time” (Marx, & Engels, 2009d: 169), science and technology eliminate the restrictions of geographical distance on resource allocation. It promotes the optimal allocation of resources from a global perspective and releases enormous synergistic effects. This innovation in the mode of factor allocation has further expanded the operational scope of productive forces. The development of productive forces is no longer limited by the resource conditions of a single region, but realizes a leap in the pattern of global interconnection and intercommunication.

4 Guiding the Development of Productive Forces to Drive the Adaptive Transformation of Relations of Production

The contradictory movement between productive forces and relations of production constitutes the fundamental driving force behind the development of social history. Among these, productive forces have always remained the most revolutionary and dynamic factor. Each qualitative leap in productive forces places corresponding demands on relations of production. Only when the relations of production align with the developmental level of productive forces can they promote their progress; otherwise, they will become an obstacle. Led by scientific and technological innovation and centered on the improvement of total factor productivity, new-quality productive forces stand as the concentrated embodiment and primary symbol of advanced productive forces in the contemporary era. Their rapid development not only brings about the quantitative accumulation of productive forces, but also triggers a profound emancipation of the qualitative state of productive forces themselves. It breaks the path dependence of traditional productive forces on conventional factors such as land, labor and capital, and relies on the in-depth integration of cutting-edge technologies—including digital technology, artificial intelligence and biotechnology—with the real economy. This integration reshapes the mode of factor allocation, the organizational form of the production process and the internal logic of productive forces development, achieving an essential transformation from quantitative accumulation to qualitative leap. This emancipated productive force, which has realized a qualitative leap, is bound to generate in-depth conflicts with the current relations of production formed on the basis of traditional productive forces, thereby promoting and spurring the adaptive transformation of existing relations of production.

The continuous development of new, quality productive forces has driven the adaptive adjustment of relations of production on a global scale. This process is not a passive and spontaneous adjustment, but an active structural reconstruction driven by the comprehensive deepening of reforms. In terms of the form of production organization, new-quality productive forces have given rise to new models such as the platform economy, remote collaboration, flexible organizations and distributed production, breaking the rigid structure of the factory system and bureaucracy in the traditional industrialization era. The platform economy reconstructs the mechanism for the cross-regional flow of production factors, enabling an efficient connection between supply and demand. Relying on digital technology, remote collaboration breaks the constraints of time and space, building a cross-regional and cross-field collaborative network. Flexible organizations flexibly adjust production processes according to market demands, replacing the traditional rigid management model. The emergence of these new organizational models represents a partial breakthrough and optimization of the outdated and rigid relations of production, serving as an initial manifestation of the adaptation of relations of production to new-quality productive forces. Their core goal is to build a safe and reliable collaborative platform among multiple subjects, strengthen the resilience of industrial and supply chains, and achieve value sharing, thereby reducing transaction costs among market entities.

The emancipatory role of new-quality productive forces is not limited to technological innovation in the field of production. More importantly, as the most revolutionary factor in social development, it promotes the evolution of social relations, including relations of production, toward a more advanced form. This constitutes a vivid manifestation of the law of social development in historical materialism. Marx profoundly revealed this law in the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy: “At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or—this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms—with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. From the forms of development of the productive forces, these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution.” (Marx, & Engels, 2012: 592) New-quality productive forces have different impacts on relations of production in different social systems. They clearly show the essential differences between capitalism and socialism. In the capitalist system, the development of new-quality productive forces will worsen its inherent contradictions to a certain extent. Digital technology and artificial intelligence keep developing. They improve production efficiency, and they also make the problem of structural unemployment more serious. Traditional jobs are being replaced all the time, but society cannot provide enough new jobs in time. Data is a crucial production factor. It is easily controlled exclusively by a few capital giants under the private ownership system. This situation forms a new type of monopoly structure. People apply data to production and daily life. This monopoly leads to many bottlenecks in the application process. These bottlenecks stop data from playing its important value fully (Zhang, 2024). New-quality productive forces also raise the level of the socialization of production (i.e., the socialization of means of production, production processes and products, which is a basic trend of social production development). They further highlight the contradiction between the private ownership of the means of production and the socialization of production. Capitalist relations of production restrict the development of productive forces more and more obviously. The capitalist system itself cannot completely solve this contradiction. It can only ease the contradiction temporarily through periodic crises and partial adjustments.

In a socialist society, new-quality productive forces bring unprecedented development opportunities. They also inject impetus into the self-improvement of relations of production. The socialist system can adjust relations of production on its own initiative. These adjustments can meet the developmental needs of new-quality productive forces. China practices the socialist market economic system. It gives play to the decisive role of the market in resource allocation, and this role can stimulate the innovative vitality of new-quality productive forces. It also strengthens government regulation at the same time. The government avoids risks and imbalances in development through policy guidance, strategic layout and institutional innovation. Specifically, the country needs to deepen reforms in the economic, scientific and technological systems further. It needs to remove bottlenecks that hinder the development of new, high-quality productive forces. It also needs to establish a high-standard market system (Jiao, & Du, 2024). China adheres to a people-centered development philosophy. It turns the achievements of new-quality productive forces into concrete results. These results can meet people’s needs for a better life, and they also contribute to the emancipation and free all-around development of human beings. China keeps improving its digital infrastructure, and this action narrows the digital divide. It strengthens vocational training and optimizes the social security system, and these measures solve the problem of structural unemployment. It also relies on the reform of the market-oriented allocation of data factors. The reform regulates market monopolies and safeguards distribution fairness. The emancipatory effects of new-quality productive forces finally focus on human development in this way. This is the fundamental manifestation of the emancipation of productive forces under the socialist system. It is also the key to the positive interaction between new-quality productive forces and socialist relations of production.

General Secretary Xi Jinping bases his ideas on the basic principles of Marxism and China’s specific practices. He has creatively put forward the concept of new-quality productive forces. This concept represents the development of the Marxist productive forces theory in the new era. It is highly consistent with the objective law of the contradictory movement between productive forces and relations of production in historical materialism. It provides scientific guidance for solving developmental challenges in the context of the global scientific and technological revolution and industrial transformation. New-quality productive forces coordinate the innovation and adaptation of core production elements. These elements include laborers, means of labor, and objects of labor. They break the constraints of traditional production models. They drive the adaptive adjustment of relations of production in the process of emancipating and developing productive forces. Their practical effects show essential differences in different social systems. The capitalist system is restricted by its inherent contradictions. It faces institutional obstacles from private ownership. These problems make it hard for the system to fundamentally resolve the in-depth conflicts caused by the development of new-quality productive forces. People make partial adjustments to capitalist relations of production. These adjustments can only ease contradictions temporarily and cannot eliminate them completely. The socialist system has its unique advantages. It achieves dynamic adaptation to new-quality productive forces through conscious adjustments. It turns development achievements into tangible benefits for all people. It also establishes a solid institutional foundation for the positive interaction between productive forces and relations of production. This obvious contrast confirms the scientific nature and truth of the law of the contradictory movement between productive forces and relations of production. It also shows the vibrant vitality of Marxist theory, which keeps enriching with practical development. This contrast provides solid theoretical support for promoting Chinese-style modernization based on historical materialism. It also offers clear practical guidance for achieving the free all-round development of human beings. Besides, it gives guidance for realizing the high-quality and sustainable development of human society.

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