1.曲阜师范大学教育学院,曲阜; 2.济南市长清区石麟小学,济南
亲社会行为(Prosocial behavior)是个体自愿做出的符合社会期望并对他人或社会有益的行为,主要包括帮助、分享、合作和安慰等行为[1]。对于人类社会而言,亲社会行为作为一种极为普遍的社会现象,对人类的进步和发展具有重要作用;对于个体而言,亲社会行为是个体在社会化过程中十分常见的社会行为,是个体社会化发展的重要指标,对于亲社会行为实施者的整个生命历程存在重要的积极影响[2]。然而,现实生活中,个体的行为并不总是亲社会的,个体亲社会行为的产生会受到各种因素的影响。
基因和环境两大因素共同影响个体的行为表现[3]。对儿童来说,家庭是影响其行为表现的重要环境之一。父母对儿童表现出的温暖和支持等积极的养育方式对儿童的发展具有积极影响,使儿童具有良好的情绪适应和行为适应[4],与孩子当下的积极表现和日后的积极发展结果相关。相比之下,父母的消极养育方式(包括强迫、粗暴管教和专制的养育方式)则对儿童产生一系列不良影响,导致孩子的消极发展结果,如经常遭受粗暴养育的儿童较多表现出攻击行为,更容易出现问题性网络使用,也容易在学业方面表现不良;此外,这些儿童也在情绪适应上也存在问题,如情绪失调和社交焦虑等。
积极养育(positive parenting)是指在养育过程中,父母表现出对儿童利益和权利的尊重[14],与孩子形成民主合作的关系[15],对孩子的需求表现出敏感性和反应性[16],从而促使儿童产生积极的发展结果[17]。积极养育是一个十分广泛的概念,不仅包括父母的养育行为,还包括父母的养育信念以及父母所提供的养育环境[18],其中父母的积极养育行为作为积极养育的关键成分,发生于亲子互动之中,直接影响儿童的发展 [19]。大量研究已经考察了父母养育因素对儿童情绪和行为适应的影响,本研究拟在以往研究的基础上,考察父母积极养育因素(父母温暖和父母积极情绪表达)对青少年亲社会行为的影响机制。
按照亲社会行为的产生过程,Eisenberg将亲社会行为产生的过程分为三个阶段[20],包括对他人需要的注意阶段、确定助人意图阶段、意图和行为相联系阶段,认为亲社会行为的三个过程均不同程度上受到个体因素(包括对他人的评价、对他人需要的归因、自我效能感、自我关注、情绪等)和情境因素(包括他人需要的明确程度、需要的来源、旁观者等)的影响。
一般来说,研究者在解释个体做出亲社会行为的原因时,一般考虑以下三种机制[21]:(a)学习,(b)社会和个人标准,(c)唤起和由此产生的情感。
(a)学习,根据社会学习理论[22],如果在亲子互动中,父母较多表现出积极的养育行为(如,温暖、支持和敏感性等),处于这种亲子互动情境中的儿童会观察到父母温暖支持的做法,并感受到父母对自己需求的敏感性回应。因此,当儿童处于其他社交情境时,也会对与社交情境中他人的需求较为敏感,并表现出类似于父母积极养育行为的温暖和支持等积极行为。(b)社会和个人标准[23],在亲子互动时,父母会通过某些方式将社会标准和自己的价值观传递给儿童,当父母经常表现出温暖、支持的养育行为时,儿童更容易接受父母所传递的信息,而不会对父母传递的观点产生厌恶感[24]。父母将社会对亲社会行为的期望和自己的价值观传递给儿童,儿童接受父母的观点,并将这种价值观内化。因此,在社交情境中,面对他人的需求,个体更容易表现出亲社会行为来达到社会标准,同时也符合自己的价值观。(c)唤起和由此产生的情感,父母的积极养育使孩子的情感系统得到良好的发展,较少产生情绪失调等问题,当儿童在社交情境中发现他人的需求时,很容易注意到他人当时的处境,容易产生情绪的唤起,从而表现出较多的亲社会行为。
依恋理论[27]认为,人类生来就有几个行为系统(如依恋系统和照料系统)。在与照料者的互动过程中,个体形成关于自己和他人的内部表征[28],称为内部工作模型。因此,生命早期个体与照料者的互动十分重要。父母对儿童实施的积极养育行为,使儿童感受到他人(这里指父母)是友好的、是爱自己的,并且认识到自己是值得被爱的,从而使儿童形成关于自己和他人的积极的内部表征,形成安全型依恋[29]。在其他社会互动情境中,安全型依恋的儿童依然保持这种关于自己和他人的表征,较少出现社交焦虑和对他人的警惕,更多地关注于当前的社交情境,也更多地关注到社交对象的需求,对社交对象表现出更多的共情反应,并认为自己对其做出的反应是安全的,从而更倾向于表现出对社交对象的保护和支持等亲社会行为。相比之下,社交情境会使不安全依恋的个体产生威胁感,并感知到这种威胁的紧迫性,因此,依恋不安全感会干扰个体的其他行为系统(如探索和照料系统)的顺利运行。当这种干扰发生于照料系统时,潜在的照料者可能会感受到来自外界的威胁,从而使个体获得他人照顾的倾向大于照顾别人的倾向。这种情况下,即使是成年人也会过度关注自身的脆弱性和需求,从而缺乏必要的注意资源来关心和照顾他人。
共情是个体设身处地理解他人情绪感受及处境的能力[35]。父母的温暖/反应性的积极养育行为使儿童感受到安全感、控制感和对于当前所处环境的信任感,从而减少了儿童对自己的关注,也减少了儿童的自私表现,开始关注他人的感受并对他人表现出共情[36]。父母对儿童表现出温暖/反应性等积极的养育行为时,通常显示出父母对儿童的高度共情,受父母影响,儿童在于他人交往时也会表现出高度的共情反应[37]。
大量关于共情和亲社会行为之间关系的研究发现共情和亲社会行为之间存在很强的关联。共情可以看作个体试图增加自己感知他人意图和反应的过程,这种感知很可能成为个体在后期做出亲社会行为反应的动机因素[39]。与共情-利他观点一致[40],共情能够唤起个体的利他动机,从而促进个体表现出利他行为。同时,共情,或对处于困境中个体的情感关怀[41],能够促进个体表现出更多亲社会行为等道德行为,也抑制个体产生攻击等非道德行为[42]。共情能力强的个体更能通过他人的情感信息预测他人的意图,在处理社会问题和解决人际冲突上表现更好,在社交情境中表现出更多的合作行为。此外,共情水平高的个体更能克制自我中心的观点,较多从他人角度出发,考虑他人感受,对他人的感受也更加敏感,更容易做出对他人有利的亲社会行为。
儿童的依恋安全感可能以多种方式影响共情。首先,对孩子反应表现出较高敏感性的父母会对孩子表现出共情,父母的这种行为模式可能会被儿童整合到内部工作模型中,成为儿童应对他人痛苦的脚本[46]。同时,在个体情绪调节能力较差的年龄段(如,婴儿期),父母在其情绪调节中扮演着重要角色,父母针对孩子的痛苦做出反应,儿童通过观察学习,从父母的表现中学习到更多工具性的情绪调节方式[46],情绪调节能力的获得,使儿童在观察到他人的痛苦体验时,能够更好地调节自身的情绪反应,将更多的注意资源集中于他人产生共情反应,而非集中于自己产生个人痛苦体验[47]。以往研究者考察了依恋安全感和共情的关系,发现安全型依恋的孩子对于同伴的焦虑表现出更多的共情反应,并且同伴感知到的共情水平更高[48]。
本研究通过对以往关于父母养育和儿童亲社会行为研究的回顾,分析了父母积极养育因素(主要是积极养育行为)对儿童亲社会行为的影响机制。总结来说,父母在与儿童的互动中表现出积极的养育行为,儿童会在这种互动中学习到父母的积极行为表现,从而在其他社交情境中对他人的需求同样表现出反应性和支持性的反应;父母的温暖/支持通常使孩子更容易接受父母的观点,父母以温暖支持的方式将社会和个人的标准传达给儿童,儿童将其内化,从而表现出更多的亲社会行为;父母以温暖支持的方式对待孩子,使孩子的情感系统发展良好,很容易被他人的需求所唤起,从而做出某些行为,减少他人的消极体验。此外,儿童的依恋安全感和共情也在父母积极养育与儿童亲社会行为之间起中介作用。
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