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Psychology of China

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自我验证效果的两面性及其边界条件

The Duality of Self-verification Effect and its Boundary Conditions

Psychology of China / 2022,4(10): 1190-1199 / 2022-10-25 look549 look813
  • Authors: 邓勇 赵春黎 吴素梅
  • Information:
    广西师范大学教育学部,桂林
  • Keywords:
    Self-verification; Self-enhancement; Self-esteem; Boundary factors
    自我验证; 自我增强; 自尊; 边界因素
  • Abstract: Self-verification theory assumes individuals have a preference for maintaining the consistency and continuity of their original self-views, which makes individuals tend to verify their own self-views, regardless of whether the concept is negative or positive. Previous studies have indicated that selfverification affects all aspects of individuals, including both positive and negative effects. In order to understand the characteristics, influencing effects and influencing factors of self-verification, this paper was summarized as follows: Firstly, this study reviewed the origin of self-verification theory and clarified that the foundation of selfverification theory is that the individuals’ self-views give individuals a powerful sense of coherence and the ability to predict and control the world around them. Since self-views have such an important function, individuals have a tendency to self-verify to maintain a stable self-concept. Secondly, this study started from two aspects: the positive and negative effects of self-verification on individuals and discussed the influence of self-verification on the individuals’ emotions, the development of interpersonal relationships, and career development. The positive impacts are as follows. Selfverification can reduce individual anxiety. By improving individual predictability, it also makes interpersonal interactions smoother and promotes interpersonal relationships, such as classmates, colleagues, friends, lovers and so on. Thirdly, this study discussed the factors that may affect the tendency of self-verification: First, the type of individual self-esteem. The second point is whether the type of social scene the individual is in public or private. Individuals with low self-evaluation conduct more self-verification in public than in private, and they think that the negative feedback they receive has higher reliability and effectiveness. Finally, combined with the existing research results and the characteristics of the present society, the possible directions of future research are put forward. First, explore the characteristics of individual self-verification in virtual space. Second, explore the characteristics of self-verification of contemporary Chinese people who have experienced rapid development and changes in Chinese society. 自我验证理论假设个体倾向于努力维持他们有关自我的观念(Self-views),即使这些自我观念是消极的。本文总结自我验证对个体的积极和消极影响。探讨了可能对个体自我验证有影响的两个边界因素,个体的自尊类型和所处的场景。未来研究可关注以下方面:结合网络高度发达的背景,探讨虚拟空间中自我验证对自我的影响;结合当下中国社会文化,探讨中国社会文化下个体自我验证的特点。
  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.35534/pc.0410140
  • Cite: 邓勇,赵春黎,吴素梅.自我验证效果的两面性及其边界条件[J].中国心理学前沿,2022,4(10):1190-1199.


1 引言

自我验证理论认为,个体存在维持自己原有自我观念一致性和连贯性的偏好,使个体倾向于验证自己持有的自我观念,无论这一观念是消极还是积极(Swann,1983)。以往研究发现自我验证影响着个体的各个方面,且既有积极影响也有消极影响。积极方面包括减少焦虑、促进亲密关系和提高工作效率等(Emery et al.,2018;Kimand Lin,2019;Swann et al.,2008);消极方面包括促使个体维持低自尊状态、抑郁状态和不健康的关系等(Brooks et al.,2011;Swann et al.,1992;Wiesenfeld et al.,2007)。为了能够更好地利用自我验证的积极影响,研究者试图找到可能会影响个体自我验证的因素。随着有关研究的深入,研究者发现个体的自尊类型和所处场景类型(公开的/私人的)等因素可能对个体的自我验证的表现有影响(Bodroza,2011;Kim and Gonzales,2018;Kwang and Swann,2010)。由此可见,从自我验证理论提出以来,越来越多的研究证明了自我验证对个体各方面存在的影响,且这种影响有两面性。然而,国内对自我验证的研究还处于起步阶段,相关领域研究还有待深入。本文试图通过对近年来自我验证的文献进行梳理,从自我验证的效果存在两面性出发,探讨影响自我验证的边界因素,旨在为个体能更好地利用自我验证产生积极影响、避免消极影响提供理论和实践的指导,并识别未来可能的研究方向,为国内研究者进行相关领域的研究,深入探讨相关影响机制提供参考。

2 自我验证的内涵

自我验证理论起源于一种假设,即个体的自我观念会赋予个体一种强大的连续性和在一定程度上预测、控制他们周围世界的能力(Mead,1934)。由于自我观念具有这样重要的功能,所以个体有维持自我观念稳定的倾向,喜欢他人看待自己的看法和自己相一致,并倾向与之交往(Swann,1983)。具体而言,自我验证理论认为有积极自我看法的个体更喜欢与对其持积极看法的人交往,有消极自我看法的个体更喜欢与对其持消极看法的人交往(Kwang and Swann,2010;Swann et al.,1992;Swann et al.,1992)。

自我验证理论中认为个体倾向接受积极的、自我增强的评价,这与自我增强理论的假设一致(Jones,1973)。而同时它也认为有消极自我观念的个体也倾向于以消极态度看待他们的人交往,这与以往的心理学理论相冲突。但也可以理解,因为有消极自我观念的个体对于别人给自己的消极评价会感到更加安心、可靠,而对于别人给的积极评价会感到焦虑不安(Wood et al.,2005)。这可能是因为接收到自我验证评价会使个体心理上感到自我观念更具有稳定性、一致性,并对外部世界更有预测性、控制感,从而使个体产生积极的体验(Swann,1992)。

3 自我验证的积极影响

3.1 减轻焦虑

焦虑情绪是人们都想避免或减轻的,自我验证不仅能让人感到自我观念的稳定性、连贯性,还能减轻个体的焦虑情绪,提升个体的生活满意度(Lindsey et al.,2019;Swann et al.,2008)。基尔等人(Kille et al.,2017)以处于恋爱中的个体为研究对象,研究高自尊与低自尊个体在接收到伴侣积极信息的感受,发现高自尊个体会体验到积极情绪,而低自尊个体会认为信息不真实、不信任信息的内容,并会对其感到有压力。当接收到的是消极信息(自我验证的信息)时,则只有低自尊个体会感到安心。该研究还发现,这种不同自尊个体对积极信息的差异反应可能受到思维方式(Mindset)的影响,当个体被诱导为具体思维方式而非抽象思维方式时,不同自尊个体对反馈信息的反应差异变小。此外,自我验证不仅能减轻个体的一般焦虑情绪,还能让个体脱离不确定感,减轻个体社交焦虑(Budnick et al.,2015;Valentiner et al.,2011)。

3.2 对人际关系的积极影响

在人际互动中,得到自我验证反馈会使个体感到被互动对象真正地理解,有更高的被理解感,减少对互动对象可能存有的偏见或歧视,有利于关系的良性发展(Vázquez et al.,2018)。相互理解能使互动双方感到对方的行为模式有较高的可预测性。在进化的视角看来,由于可预测性使族群中的个体间能够彼此信任,并使群体在进行分工合作时分配得更加合适,提高生产力,利于种族的延续(Swann et al.,2008),所以个体对可预测性有偏好。自我验证使得个体可预测性偏好得到满足进而使得个体在日常人际关系中的互动更加流畅,彼此间的关系得到加深(Booth et al.,2020;Crawford et al.,2019;Emery et al.,2018;Gomez et al.,2013;Kim and Gonzales,2018;Rosen et al.,2013)。尤其是在亲密关系中,哪怕只有一方缺乏可预见性,都会导致双方容易出现冲突、矛盾,阻碍对生殖繁衍目标的达成,不利于种族的延续(Buss,2015)。简而言之,无论是从进化角度,还是从维持日常人际关系角度来看,可预测性对人都有着重要的作用。而自我验证对个体可预测性存在积极影响,这一定程度上揭示了自我验证可能促进人际互动良好发展的深层原因。

3.3 对个体工作的积极影响

自我验证在个体工作的各个阶段和方面都存在着积极的作用。如在个体求职阶段进行工作面试时,面试官对努力自我验证的应聘者评价更高,虽然这在短时间内并不会影响应聘者得到工作的机会,但长期看来,个体在刚进入一个组织的过程中积极进行自我验证,可能进入更好的组织,上级也认为他们是更优秀的员工(Cable and Kay,2012;Kim et al.,2019)。在入职后的工作阶段,努力自我验证的员工不仅工作绩效更高,且他们与同事和领导也有更积极的关系,更少的冲突,且更少离职(Booth et al.,2020;Crawford et al.,2019;Kim et al.,2019;Kim et al.,2019)。此外,当个体处于团队管理者的职位时,采用有助员工进行自我验证的管理方式,也有助于员工之间人际一致性(即评价者看待目标个体与目标个体自己看待自己相吻合的程度,相当于是自我验证过程中具体的一个时间点的状态的提升、提高(Cohen et al.,2020,Polzer et al.,2002)。而人际一致性的提高可以提升团队决策质量和团队工作效能(韩立丰、王重明,2011),这同样利于达成管理者的工作目标。此外进一步研究表明,努力自我验证对工作绩效的积极作用受到团队伦理氛围的调节,即只有当个体所处的团队中有较高的伦理氛围时,努力自我验证的个体才可能有更好的工作表现(David et al.,2021)。

上述自我验证的研究表明,自我验证对个体的情绪、人际关系和事业发展无疑是积极有益的,虽然自我验证对个体有着上述诸多积极影响,但是由于自我验证包含着个体对自我消极方面的验证,过度验证自我的消极方面也会给个体带来一些消极影响。

4 自我验证的消极影响

4.1 对个体心理健康的消极影响

自我验证使个体倾向于维持原有的自我观念,所以当个体心理处于不良状况时(如焦虑、抑郁等),再一味地进行自我验证,可能使个体心理的不良状况长期存在,且进一步加重,危及心理健康(Joiner,1995;Swann et al.,1992)。如历时9个月的纵向追踪研究发现,个体对消极信息的加工偏好与抑郁症状的发生和增加有关,甚至还可能对已经处于恢复期的抑郁症患者抑郁复发产生影响,有效预测其未来3年内抑郁的复发情况(Connolly et al.,2016;LeMoult and Gotlib,2019;LeMoult et al.,2017)。

此外,研究还发现自我验证会使精神疾病患者更倾向于接受社会强加给他们的精神疾病患者身份,并使他们有意识或无意识地表现出社会给他们定义的“疾病”症状,如实验者诱导抑郁被试认为抑郁的个体会在凝视颜色时感到颜色变得更深或更浅,之后让他们做颜色凝视任务,他们报告确实有这样的感受(Hart et al.,2021)。综上,当个体情绪处于负面状态时,应该尽量避免进行自我验证,防止这种负性状态的持续,甚至加重。

4.2 对人际关系的消极影响

自我验证可能会损害人际关系的质量,也可能对关系的建立产生不良影响。如在亲密关系中,因为交换赞美是双方传达对对方积极感情的关键手段,而感受对方的积极评价是关系满意度的重要组成部分(Murray et al.,2003),所以不能接受赞美容易使关系出现问题。而自我验证的倾向会使持有消极自我观念的个体不愿接受他人积极的反馈评价或在喜好积极反馈时也同样喜好消极反馈,这可能使亲密关系的幸福感下降(Hoplock et al.,2019),不利于亲密关系的长期发展。另外,对持有自我消极概念的人来说,努力自我验证可能会使他们倾向于以消极态度看待他们的关系,以寻求消极反馈,哪怕这种反馈会带来痛苦的体验(Swann et al.,1992),如在宿舍同学关系中,那些对自己持消极看法的大学生,如果室友对他们的评价总是积极的,他们就会更想去找一个新室友(Swann et al.,2002)。

自我验证不仅恶化亲密关系,还会促使个体寻找一种新的不良交往关系。而自我验证对于建立新的关系也可能产生不良影响,布鲁克斯等人(Brooks et al.,2011)研究发现,不自信个体的自我验证需要会使他们在与人互动时受到消极影响。具体而言,在人际互动中当不自信者充当说话者时,他们的自我验证需要会使他们体验到更多负性情绪,因为不自信者在人际互动中往往不敢表达自己,自我验证的需要使他们倾向于在互动中做一个沉默者,让他们充当说话者会让他们产生内心冲突。在人际互动中,他们自我验证的需要会使他们不愿表达自己的想法,不想主动与人交流,这会对人际关系的建立和维持造成极大阻碍(Aron et al.,1997)。

4.3 对工作的消极影响

消极自我评价的个体寻求自我验证的倾向并不局限于人际互动,也会延伸到他们的工作关系中。如在程序公正(组织对待员工的程序是否公平)方面,德克雷默和塞迪基德斯(De Cremer and Seddicides,2005)研究发现自我不确定性低的人在面临程序不公正时,更少地采取反抗行为,由于自我验证是对自我观念的确认,由此推测自我得到消极验证的个体(相较自我未得到验证的个体)可能会对程序公正更不敏感,更倾向于忍受不良的工作关系。而维森费尔德等人(Wiesenfeld et al.,2007)的研究发现,自尊会调节个体对程序公正的反应,具体而言,高自尊者对程序公正有更强的偏好,而低自尊者则没有这种偏好。该研究还发现在长期的工作关系中,低自尊者会对工作中恶意对待的感知更加迟钝。另外,当个体遭遇组织排斥时,进行自我验证可能会使其对自我能力产生更多的怀疑,否定自己在组织中的价值,降低其组织自尊水平(刘小禹 等,2015)。这一结果在一定程度上表明个体一味追求自我验证的满足对个体工作的不良影响。此外,由于当今社会社交媒体的盛行,老板在评估员工时也会参考他们在社交媒体上的信息(Chiang and Suen,2015),当个体在社交媒体上表露更多自我验证信息而非表露自我增强信息时,在同事中间会受到更低程度的尊重(Batenburg and Bartels,2017)。

5 自我验证的边界因素

通过全面梳理自我验证对个体的影响发现,自我验证对于个体其实是一把双刃剑,当自我验证对个体带来的是消极影响时,个体应及时地遏制住自我验证的冲动,并进行一定的自我增强来减轻已经产生的消极影响。因此需要了解哪些因素会影响个体进行自我验证和自我增强。梳理发现两个因素能有效影响个体是倾向于进行自我验证还是自我增强,分别是个体自尊类型、所处的场景。

5.1 自尊类型的影响

自尊的类型影响着个体是倾向于进行自我验证还是自我增强。从自我验证理论被提出以来,个体自尊就常常被一同提及。但它们之间是否存在确实的相关还存有争议。如有研究发现,高自尊个体倾向于自我增强,低自尊的个体更倾向于自我验证(Swann et al.,1989),更倾向买劣质产品(Stuppy et al.,2020),而有研究却发现这种相关并不能得到验证(Bodroza,2011)。产生这种矛盾结果的原因可能是个体自尊类型的不同。个体的自尊多种多样,其中社会自尊和权变性自尊(个体的自尊感较大程度上仅源于某一领域或某种范畴内取得的成果,即个体对自我价值的看法取决于自己是否达到了该领域中的自我标准)与自我验证的关系得到了研究证明,具体表现为低社会自尊与自我验证倾向有正相关(Valentiner et al.,2011)。低社会自尊个体对积极社会评价会感到不适,且其无论受到何种伤害,都容易出现社会焦虑维持等不好的结果,而有较高社会自尊的个体在受到伤害后,往往表现出较高的社会焦虑水平(Valentiner et al.,2017);权变性自尊的个体在自己自尊的重要来源领域倾向于自我增强,而在其他领域倾向于自我验证。另外,其总体自尊并不一定是高或低,这可能是在个体自尊与自我验证倾向关系的研究中,结果出现不一致的原因(Ferris et al.,2015)。

5.2 所处场景的影响

个体所处的场景(公开的/私人的)也会影响个体自我验证和自我增强的倾向。具体而言,当自我评价低的个体在公众场合收到负面反馈时(相比在私人场合),负面反馈对其形成负面人际印象的影响更小,即个体此时可能有更强的自我验证倾向,他们会认为接收到的负面反馈有更高的可信度和有效性,而在私人场合,个体则更不易接受负面反馈,个体此时可能有更强的自我增强倾向(Kim and Gonzales,2018)。这可能是由于他们感到了社会评价的压力,自我评价较低的个体在社会评价压力增加的情况下会变得更谦虚,使他们更倾向于接受相对负面的反馈评价(Schlenker et al.,1990)。由此可以推测社会评价压力可能是促进个体自我验证的一个诱因,个体可以通过一些减轻社会压力的方法来减轻个体自我验证的倾向。

6 研究展望

综上所述,自我验证对于个体来说有利有弊,是一把双刃剑。无论是在个体心理健康、人际关系、还是工作发展方面,自我验证都既可能产生积极影响,又可能产生消极影响。为了能减轻甚至消除自我验证可能给个体带来的消极影响,探索能够影响个体是进行自我验证还是自我增强的因素显得十分重要。已有研究发现,个体的自尊类型、所处的场景都可以影响其自我验证的倾向(Bodroza,2011;Ferris et al.,2015;Kim and Gonzales,2018)。这些研究使我们对自我验证有了更深的了解,同时也为如何避免自我验证带来的消极影响提供了思路。基于已有的研究结果并结合当下的社会特点,未来研究可从以下几个方面展开。

6.1 虚拟空间中的自我验证

随着科技的发展,虚拟空间的形式和内容都变得愈加丰富。个体在这些虚拟空间活动时,自我表达的信息是自我验证的还是自我增强的对个体可能会有不同的影响。如在网络社交平台方面,网络社交平台提供给个体建构身份认同的文化工具,这些工具让个体更加自由地展示自我,更加方便地与他人互动,增加了处于探索身份认同阶段的个体建构自我认同,社会认同方式(Manago et al.,2008)。同时个体在网络社交平台表露的信息内容也影响着他人对自己的看法,如个体在Facebook上表露的自我增强的信息与收到的点赞数成正相关(Bareket-Bojmel et al.,2016)。另外,个体表露自我增强的信息相较于自我验证的信息,会受到同事更高程度的尊重(Batenburg and artels,2017)。

在视频游戏方面,玩家在游戏中所扮演的虚拟角色相当于玩家的一个虚拟化身:即个体在视频游戏中的虚拟自我呈现(Virtual Self-presentation),它是个体进行角色扮演,体验虚拟游戏环境的重要媒介。虚拟化身不仅代表个体的虚拟自我,还会在一定程度上影响个体的自我观念(Vingilis et al.,2016),如化身的外表有吸引力容易使玩家将自己知觉为自信的、友好的(Yee and Bailenson,2007);化身的暴力行为会使玩家形成攻击性的自我观念(Lin,2013),减低自我人性化水平(Bastian et al.,2012;Greitemeyer,2013),且知觉自己更具有男子气概(Gabbiadini et al.,2016)等。此外,当虚拟化身与玩家在外貌特征(如面部特征和种族特征)上相似时,还会促进玩家对化身的认同感(Soutter and Hitchens,2016)。由于自我验证是个体对自我观念的验证,游戏玩家可能会用虚拟化身来进行自我验证,人们创建的虚拟化身时,在化身的外观塑造时同时存在自我验证和自我增强的倾向(Messinger et al.,2019)。由此当玩家的虚拟化身形象逐渐完善,趋于稳定后,玩家再利用虚拟化身进行自我验证时,是更多验证现实自我还是虚拟化身的自我?并且玩家用虚拟化身进行自我验证又是否会对现实的自我产生影响?产生怎样的影响?未来研究可以尝试探究上述问题。

6.2 自我验证与中国社会文化

社会文化对个体自我观念的塑造存在影响,不同的社会文化背景下,个体有着该文化下特有自我观念,如西方文化下的个体可能更多具有个人主义的自我观念,而东方文化下的个体可能更多具有集体主义的自我观念,即个体主义中的个体更可能有独立的自我观念,且其跨情景的一致性较高,而集体主义中个体的自我观念很可能因所属团体的不同有所变化,其跨情景的一致性较低(Suh and Psychology S,2002)。这种自我观念特点的不一致,可能导致对自我观念确定的自我验证有影响,如美国被试的自我验证动机显著高于印度被试的自我验证动机,另外,在跨国公司中被外派到国外的管理层员工可能因为集体自我观念不能得到验证,使他们感受到更多的文化适应压力进而损害他们的工作表现(Lee et al.,2019)。中国近几十年的快速发展使社会发生了巨大变化,身处其中的个体由以前多是接触本土的文化,受本土文化的影响。而现在个体可以轻易接触到世界各国的文化并受其影响,个体自我观念的建构可能更加复杂多元,体验到更多文化适应压力。处于这样的社会文化背景下的中国人,其自我验证的方式和效果还有待进一步验证。

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